Davenport, A. J. et al. CAR-T cells inflict sequential killing of multiple tumor target cells. Cancer Immunol. Res. 3, 483–494 (2015).
Kalos, M. et al. T cells with chimeric antigen receptors have potent antitumor effects and can establish memory in patients with advanced leukemia. Sci. Transl. Med. 3, 95ra73 (2011).
Maude, S. L. et al. Tisagenlecleucel in children and young adults with B-cell lymphoblastic leukemia. N. Engl. J. Med. 378, 439–448 (2018).
Locke, F. L. et al. Long-term safety and activity of axicabtagene ciloleucel in refractory large B-cell lymphoma (ZUMA-1): a single-arm, multicentre, phase 1–2 trial. Lancet Oncol. 20, 31–42 (2019).
Wang, M. et al. KTE-X19 CAR T-cell therapy in relapsed or refractory mantle-cell lymphoma. N. Engl. J. Med. 382, 1331–1342 (2020).
Abramson, J. S. et al. Lisocabtagene maraleucel for patients with relapsed or refractory large B-cell lymphomas (TRANSCEND NHL 001): a multicentre seamless design study. Lancet 396, 839–852 (2020).
Roddie, C. et al. Obecabtagene autoleucel in adults with B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia. N. Engl. J. Med. 391, 2219–2230 (2024).
Munshi, N. C. et al. Idecabtagene vicleucel in relapsed and refractory multiple myeloma. N. Engl. J. Med. 384, 705–716 (2021).
San-Miguel, J. et al. Cilta-cel or standard care in lenalidomide-refractory multiple myeloma. N. Engl. J. Med. 389, 335–347 (2023).
Sadelain, M. CAR therapy: the CD19 paradigm. J. Clin. Invest. 125, 3392–3400 (2015).
Cappell, K. M. & Kochenderfer, J. N. Long-term outcomes following CAR T cell therapy: what we know so far. Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 20, 359–371 (2023).
Abeles, I. et al. B cell-directed therapy in autoimmunity. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 42, 103–126 (2024).
Vital, E. M. et al. B cell biomarkers of rituximab responses in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 63, 3038–3047 (2011).
Anolik, J. H. et al. Delayed memory B cell recovery in peripheral blood and lymphoid tissue in systemic lupus erythematosus after B cell depletion therapy. Arthritis Rheum. 56, 3044–3056 (2007).
Reddy, V. R. et al. Disparity in peripheral and renal B-cell depletion with rituximab in systemic lupus erythematosus: an opportunity for obinutuzumab? Rheumatology 61, 2894–2904 (2022).
Mouquet, H. et al. B-cell depletion immunotherapy in pemphigus: effects on cellular and humoral immune responses. J. Invest. Dermatol. 128, 2859–2869 (2008).
Hammers, C. M. et al. Persistence of anti-desmoglein 3 IgG+ B-cell clones in pemphigus patients over years. J. Invest. Dermatol. 135, 742–749 (2015).
Kavanaugh, A. et al. Assessment of rituximab’s immunomodulatory synovial effects (ARISE trial). 1: clinical and synovial biomarker results. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 67, 402–408 (2008).
Yeung, C. C. S. et al. Abnormal bone marrow findings in patients following treatment with chimeric antigen receptor-T cell therapy. Eur. J. Haematol. 112, 111–121 (2024).
O’Reilly, M. et al. Trafficking of CAR T cells to sites of subclinical leukaemia cutis. Lancet Oncol. 21, e179 (2020).
Siddiqi, T. et al. CD19-directed CAR T-cell therapy for treatment of primary CNS lymphoma. Blood Adv. 5, 4059–4063 (2021).
Kansal, R. et al. Sustained B cell depletion by CD19-targeted CAR T cells is a highly effective treatment for murine lupus. Sci. Transl. Med. 11, eaav1648 (2019).
Jin, X. et al. Therapeutic efficacy of anti-CD19 CAR-T cells in a mouse model of systemic lupus erythematosus. Cell. Mol. Immunol. 18, 1896–1903 (2021).
Mougiakakos, D. et al. CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory systemic lupus erythematosus. N. Engl. J. Med. 385, 567–569 (2021).
Muller, F. et al. CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease—a case series with follow-up. N. Engl. J. Med. 390, 687–700 (2024). This is the largest case series of anti-CD19 CAR T cells in autoimmunity published to date, involving eight individuals with SLE who all achieved DORIS remission, three individuals with IIM who achieved ACR-EULAR major clinical response and four individuals with SSc who demonstrated improved EUSTAR activity index. All 15 individuals discontinued immunosuppressive therapy. The mean period of B cell depletion was 112 days. Adverse events included grade 1 CRS (n = 10), grade 2 CRS (n = 1), grade 1 ICANS (n = 1) and pneumonia resulting in hospitalization (n = 1).
Mackensen, A. et al. Anti-CD19 CAR T cell therapy for refractory systemic lupus erythematosus. Nat. Med. 28, 2124–2132 (2022).
Nordmann-Gomes, A. et al. CAR T-cell therapy in SLE: a systematic review. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 74, 152786 (2025).
Bergmann, C. et al. Treatment of a patient with severe systemic sclerosis (SSc) using CD19-targeted CAR T cells. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 82, 1117–1120 (2023).
Auth, J. et al. CD19-targeting CAR T-cell therapy in patients with diffuse systemic sclerosis: a case series. Lancet Rheumatol. 7, e83–e93 (2025).
Pecher, A. C. et al. CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome. JAMA 329, 2154–2162 (2023).
Merkt, W. et al. Third-generation CD19.CAR-T cell-containing combination therapy in Scl70+ systemic sclerosis. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 83, 543–546 (2024).
Wang, X. et al. Allogeneic CD19-targeted CAR-T therapy in patients with severe myositis and systemic sclerosis. Cell 187, 4890–4904 (2024).
Muller, F. et al. CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome. Lancet 401, 815–818 (2023).
Nicolai, R. et al. Autologous CD19-targeting CAR T cells in a patient with refractory juvenile dermatomyositis. Arthritis Rheumatol. 76, 1560–1565 (2024).
Taubmann, J. et al. Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies. Rheumatology 63, e12–e14 (2024).
Volkov, J. et al. Case study of CD19 CAR T therapy in a subject with immune-mediate necrotizing myopathy treated in the RESET-Myositis phase I/II trial. Mol. Ther. 32, 3821–3828 (2024).
Haghikia, A. et al. Clinical efficacy and autoantibody seroconversion with CD19-CAR T cell therapy in a patient with rheumatoid arthritis and coexisting myasthenia gravis. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 83, 1597–1598 (2024).
Lidar, M. et al. CD-19 CAR-T cells for polyrefractory rheumatoid arthritis. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 84, 370–372 (2025).
Szabo, D. et al. Sustained drug-free remission in rheumatoid arthritis associated with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma following tandem CD20–CD19-directed non-cryopreserved CAR-T cell therapy using zamtocabtagene autoleucel. RMD Open 10, e004727 (2024).
Li, Y. et al. Fourth-generation chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy is tolerable and efficacious in treatment-resistant rheumatoid arthritis. Cell Res. 35, 220–223 (2025).
Haghikia, A. et al. Anti-CD19 CAR T cells for refractory myasthenia gravis. Lancet Neurol. 22, 1104–1105 (2023).
Motte, J. et al. Treatment of concomitant myasthenia gravis and Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome with autologous CD19-targeted CAR T cells. Neuron 112, 1757–1763 (2024).
Muppidi, S. et al. Utilization of MG-ADL in myasthenia gravis clinical research and care. Muscle Nerve 65, 630–639 (2022).
Fischbach, F. et al. CD19-targeted chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy in two patients with multiple sclerosis. Med 5, 550–558 (2024).
Richter, J. et al. CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy in 4 patients with refractory multiple sclerosis. Blood 144, 2073–2073 (2024).
ACTRIMS Forum 2025—Posters. Mult. Scler. J. 31, 24–244 (2025).
Minopoulou, I. et al. Anti-CD19 CAR T cell therapy induces antibody seroconversion and complete B cell depletion in the bone marrow of a therapy-refractory patient with ANCA-associated vasculitis. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 84, e4–e7 (2025).
Trautmann-Grill, K. et al. Salvage treatment of multi-refractory primary immune thrombocytopenia with CD19 CAR T cells. Lancet 405, 25–28 (2025).
Schultze-Florey, C. R. et al. Anti-CD19 CAR-T cell therapy for acquired hemophilia A. Leukemia 39, 980–982 (2025).
Brudno, J. N. & Kochenderfer, J. N. Current understanding and management of CAR T cell-associated toxicities. Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 21, 501–521 (2024).
Shu, J. et al. Safety and clinical efficacy of relmacabtagene autoleucel (relma-cel) for systemic lupus erythematosus: a phase 1 open-label clinical trial. EClinicalMedicine 83, 103229 (2025).
Cappell, K. M. & Kochenderfer, J. N. A comparison of chimeric antigen receptors containing CD28 versus 4-1BB costimulatory domains. Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 18, 715–727 (2021).
Feucht, J. & Sadelain, M. Function and evolution of the prototypic CD28ζ and 4-1BBζ chimeric antigen receptors. Immunooncol. Technol. 8, 2–11 (2020).
Hagen, M. et al. Local immune effector cell-associated toxicity syndrome in CAR T-cell treated patients with autoimmune disease: an observational study. Lancet Rheumatol. 7, e424–e433 (2025).
Bhoj, V. G. et al. Persistence of long-lived plasma cells and humoral immunity in individuals responding to CD19-directed CAR T-cell therapy. Blood 128, 360–370 (2016).
Verdun, N. & Marks, P. Secondary cancers after chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy. N. Engl. J. Med. 390, 584–586 (2024).
Storgard, R., Rejeski, K., Perales, M. A., Goldman, A. & Shouval, R. T-cell malignant neoplasms after chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy. JAMA Oncol. 10, 826–828 (2024).
Harrison, S. J. et al. CAR+ T-cell lymphoma after cilta-cel therapy for relapsed or refractory myeloma. N. Engl. J. Med. 392, 677–685 (2025).
Dulery, R. et al. T cell malignancies after CAR T cell therapy in the DESCAR-T registry. Nat. Med. 31, 1130–1133 (2025).
Hamilton, M. P. et al. Risk of second tumors and T-cell lymphoma after CAR T-cell therapy. N. Engl. J. Med. 390, 2047–2060 (2024).
Ozdemirli, M. et al. Indolent CD4+ CAR T-cell lymphoma after cilta-cel CAR T-cell therapy. N. Engl. J. Med. 390, 2074–2082 (2024).
Braun, T. et al. Multiomic profiling of T cell lymphoma after therapy with anti-BCMA CAR T cells and GPRC5D-directed bispecific antibody. Nat. Med. 31, 1145–1153 (2025).
Qin, C. et al. Anti-BCMA CAR T-cell therapy CT103A in relapsed or refractory AQP4-IgG seropositive neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders: phase 1 trial interim results. Signal Transduct. Target. Ther. 8, 5 (2023). The largest case series of anti-BCMA CAR T cells in autoimmunity (NMOSD) showed that 11 of 12 patients achieved drug-free CR and 10 of 12 patients also achieved serologic remission. Hypogammaglobulinemia occurred in all patients who reached 6-month follow-up, associated with infectious SEAs.
Muller, F. et al. BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells. Nat. Med. 31, 1793–1797 (2025).
Qin, C. et al. Anti-BCMA CAR-T therapy in patients with progressive multiple sclerosis. Cell 188, P6414–P6423 (2025).
Tipton, C. M. et al. Diversity, cellular origin and autoreactivity of antibody-secreting cell population expansions in acute systemic lupus erythematosus. Nat. Immunol. 16, 755–765 (2015).
Wang, W. et al. BCMA-CD19 compound CAR T cells for systemic lupus erythematosus: a phase 1 open-label clinical trial. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 83, 1304–1314 (2024). This is the largest published case series of dual CD19–BCMA-targeting CAR T cells in autoimmunity to date. Nine of 13 individuals with SLE achieved CR within 6 months; in 12 of 13, anti-dsDNA and other autoantibodies became undetectable. Hypogammaglobulinemia occurred in 100% of individuals, associated with one case of mild urinary tract infection and three cases of severe coronavirus disease-related pneumonia. Revaccination of one individual after CART therapy resulted in restoration of protective anti-hepatitis B titers.
Shen, N. et al. Clinical impact of C-CAR168, a novel anti-CD20/BCMA composite autologous CAR T therapy, in refractory lupus nephritis. J. Rheumatol. 52, 25–26 (2025).
Wong, D. P. et al. A BAFF ligand-based CAR-T cell targeting three receptors and multiple B cell cancers. Nat. Commun. 13, 217 (2022).
Luo, Y. et al. Translational development of a novel BAFF-R CAR-T therapy targeting B-cell lymphoid malignancies. Cancer Immunol. Immunother. 72, 4031–4047 (2023).
Granit, V. et al. Safety and clinical activity of autologous RNA chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy in myasthenia gravis (MG-001): a prospective, multicentre, open-label, non-randomised phase 1b/2a study. Lancet Neurol. 22, 578–590 (2023).
Chahin, N. et al. Durability of response to B-cell maturation antigen-directed mRNA cell therapy in myasthenia gravis. Ann. Clin. Transl. Neurol. 12, 2358–2366 (2025).
Ellebrecht, C. T. et al. Reengineering chimeric antigen receptor T cells for targeted therapy of autoimmune disease. Science 353, 179–184 (2016).
Lee, J. et al. Antigen-specific B cell depletion for precision therapy of mucosal pemphigus vulgaris. J. Clin. Invest. 130, 6317–6324 (2020). This paper highlights the preclinical data leading to FDA clearance of the DSG3-CAART Investigational New Drug application, representing the first highly targeted precision cellular immunotherapy to enter clinical trials for an autoimmune disease indication.
Oh, S. et al. Precision targeting of autoantigen-specific B cells in muscle-specific tyrosine kinase myasthenia gravis with chimeric autoantibody receptor T cells. Nat. Biotechnol. 41, 1229–1238 (2023).
Oh, S., Khani-Habibabadi, F., O’Connor, K. C. & Payne, A. S. Composition and function of AChR chimeric autoantibody receptor T cells for antigen-specific B cell depletion in myasthenia gravis. Sci. Adv. 11, eadt0795 (2025).
Reincke, S. M. et al. Chimeric autoantibody receptor T cells deplete NMDA receptor-specific B cells. Cell 186, 5084–5097 (2023).
Seifert, L. et al. An antigen-specific chimeric autoantibody receptor (CAAR) NK cell strategy for the elimination of anti-PLA2R1 and anti-THSD7A antibody-secreting cells. Kidney Int. 105, 886–889 (2024).
Altun B, et al. Preclinical feasibility of antigen-specific B-cell depletion for phospholipase A2 receptor membranous nephropathy with chimeric autoantibody receptor T-cells. Kidney Intl. 109, 89–100 (2026).
Meng, H. et al. La/SSB chimeric autoantibody receptor modified NK92MI cells for targeted therapy of autoimmune disease. Clin. Immunol. 192, 40–49 (2018).
Zhou, J. et al. GPIbα CAAR T cells function like a Trojan horse to eliminate autoreactive B cells to treat immune thrombocytopenia. Haematologica 109, 2256–2270 (2024).
Peng, J. J. et al. Chimeric autoantibody receptor T cells clonally eliminate B cells producing autoantibodies against IFN-γ. Sci. Immunol. 10, eadm8186 (2025).
Payne, A. S. et al. Clinical and translational data from a first-in-human study of a novel precision cellular immunotherapy (DSG3-CAART) in mucosal pemphigus vulgaris. J. Invest. Dermatol. 145, S75 (2025).
Funakoshi, T. et al. Enrichment of total serum IgG4 in patients with pemphigus. Br. J. Dermatol. 167, 1245–1253 (2012).
Volkov, J.R. et al. Clinical and translational findings following MuSK-CAART infusion without preconditioning in patients with myasthenia gravis (MuSCAARTes trial). Hum. Gene Ther. 36, P0744 (2025).
Maciocia, N., Wade, B. & Maciocia, P. CAR T-cell therapies for T-cell malignancies: does cellular immunotherapy represent the best chance of cure? Blood Adv. 9, 913–923 (2025).
Angelos, M. G., Patel, R. P., Ruella, M. & Barta, S. K. Progress and pitfalls of chimeric antigen receptor T cell immunotherapy against T cell malignancies. Transplant. Cell. Ther. 30, 171–186 (2024).
Liu, J. et al. Targeted CD7 CAR T-cells for treatment of T-lymphocyte leukemia and lymphoma and acute myeloid leukemia: recent advances. Front. Immunol. 14, 1170968 (2023).
Png, Y. T. et al. Blockade of CD7 expression in T cells for effective chimeric antigen receptor targeting of T-cell malignancies. Blood Adv. 1, 2348–2360 (2017).
Hu, Y. et al. Sequential CD7 CAR T-cell therapy and allogeneic HSCT without GVHD prophylaxis. N. Engl. J. Med. 390, 1467–1480 (2024).
Li, S. et al. Eradication of T-ALL cells by CD7-targeted universal CAR-T cells and initial test of ruxolitinib-based CRS management. Clin. Cancer Res. 27, 1242–1246 (2021).
Sumida, T. S., Cheru, N. T. & Hafler, D. A. The regulation and differentiation of regulatory T cells and their dysfunction in autoimmune diseases. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 24, 503–517 (2024).
Dominguez-Villar, M. & Hafler, D. A. Regulatory T cells in autoimmune disease. Nat. Immunol. 19, 665–673 (2018).
Ho, P. et al. Harnessing regulatory T cells to establish immune tolerance. Sci. Transl. Med. 16, eadm8859 (2024).
Bader, C. S. et al. Single-center randomized trial of Treg graft alone vs Treg graft plus tacrolimus for the prevention of acute GVHD. Blood Adv. 8, 1105–1115 (2024).
Brunstein, C. G. et al. Infusion of ex vivo expanded T regulatory cells in adults transplanted with umbilical cord blood: safety profile and detection kinetics. Blood 117, 1061–1070 (2011).
Rodger, B. et al. Protocol for a first-in-human feasibility study of T regulatory cells (TR004) for inflammatory bowel disease using (ex vivo) Treg expansion (TRIBUTE). BMJ Open 15, e092733 (2025).
Oo, Y. H. et al. Liver homing of clinical grade Tregs after therapeutic infusion in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. JHEP Rep. 1, 286–296 (2019).
Bender, C. et al. A phase 2 randomized trial with autologous polyclonal expanded regulatory T cells in children with new-onset type 1 diabetes. Sci. Transl. Med. 16, eadn2404 (2024).
Brunstein, C. G. et al. Adoptive transfer of umbilical cord blood-derived regulatory T cells and early viral reactivation. Biol. Blood Marrow Transplant. 19, 1271–1273 (2013).
Zielinski, M. et al. Combined therapy with CD4+ CD25highCD127− T regulatory cells and anti-CD20 antibody in recent-onset type 1 diabetes is superior to monotherapy: randomized phase I/II trial. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 24, 1534–1543 (2022).
PolTREG. PolTREG Treg cell therapy for patients with type-1 diabetes shows long-term clinical remission and insulin independence https://poltreg.com/poltreg-treg-cell-therapy-for-patients-with-type-1-diabetes-shows-long-term-clinical-remission-and-insulin-independence (2024).
Tenspolde, M. et al. Regulatory T cells engineered with a novel insulin-specific chimeric antigen receptor as a candidate immunotherapy for type 1 diabetes. J. Autoimmun. 103, 102289 (2019).
Blat, D., Zigmond, E., Alteber, Z., Waks, T. & Eshhar, Z. Suppression of murine colitis and its associated cancer by carcinoembryonic antigen-specific regulatory T cells. Mol. Ther. 22, 1018–1028 (2014).
De Paula Pohl, A. et al. Engineered regulatory T cells expressing myelin-specific chimeric antigen receptors suppress EAE progression. Cell. Immunol. 358, 104222 (2020).
Fransson, M. et al. CAR/FoxP3-engineered T regulatory cells target the CNS and suppress EAE upon intranasal delivery. J. Neuroinflammation 9, 112 (2012).
Raffin, C. et al. Development of citrullinated-vimentin-specific CAR for targeting Tregs to treat autoimmune rheumatoid arthritis. J. Immunol. 200, 176.117 (2018).
Kohler, M. et al. A phase 1 study of autologous CAR-Treg cells in refractory rheumatoid arthritis: interim report of safety and efficacy. Arthritis Rheumatol. 77, LB23 (2025).
Sagoo, P. et al. Human regulatory T cells with alloantigen specificity are more potent inhibitors of alloimmune skin graft damage than polyclonal regulatory T cells. Sci. Transl. Med. 3, 83ra42 (2011).
Smith, B. M., Lyle, M. J., Chen, A. C. & Miao, C. H. Antigen-specific in vitro expansion of factor VIII-specific regulatory T cells induces tolerance in hemophilia A mice. J. Thromb. Haemost. 18, 328–340 (2020).
Uenishi, G. I. et al. GNTI-122: an autologous antigen-specific engineered Treg cell therapy for type 1 diabetes. JCI Insight 9, e171844 (2024).
Ohkura, N. et al. T cell receptor stimulation-induced epigenetic changes and Foxp3 expression are independent and complementary events required for Treg cell development. Immunity 37, 785–799 (2012).
Kitagawa, Y. & Sakaguchi, S. Molecular control of regulatory T cell development and function. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 49, 64–70 (2017).
Mikami, N. et al. Epigenetic conversion of conventional T cells into regulatory T cells by CD28 signal deprivation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 117, 12258–12268 (2020).
Akamatsu, M. et al. Conversion of antigen-specific effector/memory T cells into Foxp3-expressing Treg cells by inhibition of CDK8/19. Sci. Immunol. 4, eaaw2707 (2019).
Chen, K. Y. et al. Genome-wide CRISPR screen in human T cells reveals regulators of FOXP3. Nature 642, 191–200 (2025). This study uncovers a new epigenetic checkpoint controlling FOXP3 induction, advancing the mechanistic foundation for generating stable, clinically applicable iTreg cells in autoimmune and inflammatory diseases.
Mukai, M. et al. Conversion of pathogenic T cells into functionally stabilized Treg cells for antigen-specific immunosuppression in pemphigus vulgaris. Sci. Transl. Med. 17, adq9913 (2025).
Mikami, N. et al. Generation of antigen-specific and functionally stable Treg cells from effector/memory T cells for cell therapy of immunological diseases. Sci. Transl. Med. 17, adr6049 (2025).
Simonetta, F., Alvarez, M. & Negrin, R. S. Natural killer cells in graft-versus-host-disease after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation. Front. Immunol. 8, 465 (2017).
Cichocki, F., van der Stegen, S. J. C. & Miller, J. S. Engineered and banked iPSCs for advanced NK- and T-cell immunotherapies. Blood 141, 846–855 (2023).
Myers, J. A. & Miller, J. S. Exploring the NK cell platform for cancer immunotherapy. Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 18, 85–100 (2021).
Herrera, L. et al. The race of CAR therapies: CAR-NK cells for fighting B-cell hematological cancers. Cancers 13, 5418 (2021).
Moscarelli, J., Zahavi, D., Maynard, R. & Weiner, L. M. The next generation of cellular immunotherapy: chimeric antigen receptor-natural killer cells. Transplant. Cell. Ther. 28, 650–656 (2022).
Gregoire, C. et al. The trafficking of natural killer cells. Immunol. Rev. 220, 169–182 (2007).
Rapp, M., Wiedemann, G. M. & Sun, J. C. Memory responses of innate lymphocytes and parallels with T cells. Semin. Immunopathol. 40, 343–355 (2018).
Marin, D. et al. Safety, efficacy and determinants of response of allogeneic CD19-specific CAR-NK cells in CD19+ B cell tumors: a phase 1/2 trial. Nat. Med. 30, 772–784 (2024).
Jorgensen, L. V., Christensen, E. B., Barnkob, M. B. & Barington, T. The clinical landscape of CAR NK cells. Exp. Hematol. Oncol. 14, 46 (2025).
Gao, J. et al. Allogenic CD19 CAR NK cell therapy in refractory systemic lupus erythematosus—a case series study. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 84, 321 (2025).
Hayday, A., Dechanet-Merville, J., Rossjohn, J. & Silva-Santos, B. Cancer immunotherapy by γδ T cells. Science 386, eabq7248 (2024).
Bertaina, A. et al. HLA-haploidentical stem cell transplantation after removal of αβ+ T and B cells in children with nonmalignant disorders. Blood 124, 822–826 (2014).
Mensurado, S., Blanco-Dominguez, R. & Silva-Santos, B. The emerging roles of γδ T cells in cancer immunotherapy. Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 20, 178–191 (2023).
Yazdanifar, M., Barbarito, G., Bertaina, A. & Airoldi, I. γδ T cells: the ideal tool for cancer immunotherapy. Cells 9, 1305 (2020).
Wilhelm, M. et al. Successful adoptive transfer and in vivo expansion of haploidentical γδ T cells. J. Transl. Med. 12, 45 (2014).
Neelapu, S. S. et al. A phase 1 study of ADI-001: anti-CD20 CAR-engineered allogeneic gamma delta (γδ) T cells in adults with B-cell malignancies. J. Clin. Oncol. 40, 7509 (2022).
Adicet Bio. Adicet Bio announces positive preliminary data from ADI-001 phase 1 study in patients with lupus nephritis (LN) and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) https://investor.adicetbio.com/news-releases/news-release-details/adicet-bio-announces-positive-preliminary-data-adi-001-phase-1 (2025).
Klebanoff, C. A., Khong, H. T., Antony, P. A., Palmer, D. C. & Restifo, N. P. Sinks, suppressors and antigen presenters: how lymphodepletion enhances T cell-mediated tumor immunotherapy. Trends Immunol. 26, 111–117 (2005).
Wang, L. X., Shu, S. & Plautz, G. E. Host lymphodepletion augments T cell adoptive immunotherapy through enhanced intratumoral proliferation of effector cells. Cancer Res. 65, 9547–9554 (2005).
Cohen, A. D. et al. B cell maturation antigen-specific CAR T cells are clinically active in multiple myeloma. J. Clin. Invest. 129, 2210–2221 (2019).
Illei, G. G. et al. Long-term effects of combination treatment with fludarabine and low-dose pulse cyclophosphamide in patients with lupus nephritis. Rheumatology 46, 952–956 (2007).
Carmona-Rivera, C. & Kaplan, M. J. Low-density granulocytes in systemic autoimmunity and autoinflammation. Immunol. Rev. 314, 313–325 (2023).
Bar-Or, A. & Li, R. Cellular immunology of relapsing multiple sclerosis: interactions, checks, and balances. Lancet Neurol. 20, 470–483 (2021).
Sockolosky, J. T. et al. Selective targeting of engineered T cells using orthogonal IL-2 cytokine–receptor complexes. Science 359, 1037–1042 (2018).
He, J. Z. et al. A consideration of fixed dosing versus body size-based dosing strategies for chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapies. Clin. Pharmacol. Drug Dev. 11, 1130–1135 (2022).
Ghassemi, S. et al. Reducing ex vivo culture improves the antileukemic activity of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells. Cancer Immunol. Res. 6, 1100–1109 (2018).
Wobma, H. et al. CAR T cell therapy for children with rheumatic disease: the time is now. Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 21, 494–506 (2025).
Krickau, T. et al. CAR T-cell therapy rescues adolescent with rapidly progressive lupus nephritis from haemodialysis. Lancet 403, 1627–1630 (2024).
Malvar, A. et al. Histologic versus clinical remission in proliferative lupus nephritis. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 32, 1338–1344 (2017).
Joly, P. et al. First-line rituximab combined with short-term prednisone versus prednisone alone for the treatment of pemphigus (Ritux 3): a prospective, multicentre, parallel-group, open-label randomised trial. Lancet 389, 2031–2040 (2017).
Cheng, S. W. et al. Monitoring disease activity in pemphigus with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using recombinant desmogleins 1 and 3. Br. J. Dermatol. 147, 261–265 (2002).
Aguirre, F. et al. C3, C5a and anti-acetylcholine receptor antibody as severity biomarkers in myasthenia gravis. Ther. Adv. Neurol. Disord. 13, 1756286420935697 (2020).
Luo, L. et al. Exploring the clinical significance of anti-acetylcholine receptor antibody titers, changes, and change rates in myasthenia gravis. Front. Neurol. 15, 1506845 (2024).
Nowak, R. J. et al. Phase 2 trial of rituximab in acetylcholine receptor antibody-positive generalized myasthenia gravis: the BeatMG study. Neurology 98, e376–e389 (2022).
Lopez-Hoyos, M. et al. Clinical disease activity and titers of anti-dsDNA antibodies measured by an automated immunofluorescence assay in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 14, 505–509 (2005).
Lazarus, M. N., Turner-Stokes, T., Chavele, K. M., Isenberg, D. A. & Ehrenstein, M. R. B-cell numbers and phenotype at clinical relapse following rituximab therapy differ in SLE patients according to anti-dsDNA antibody levels. Rheumatology 51, 1208–1215 (2012).
Junt, T. et al. Defining immune reset: achieving sustained remission in autoimmune diseases. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 25, 528–541 (2025).
Jiang, R. et al. Single-cell repertoire tracing identifies rituximab-resistant B cells during myasthenia gravis relapses. JCI Insight 5, e136471 (2020).
Sato, Y., Silina, K., van den Broek, M., Hirahara, K. & Yanagita, M. The roles of tertiary lymphoid structures in chronic diseases. Nat. Rev. Nephrol. 19, 525–537 (2023).
Zhou, S. et al. Autoreactive B cell differentiation in diffuse ectopic lymphoid-like structures of inflamed pemphigus lesions. J. Invest. Dermatol. 140, 309–318 (2020).
Wardemann, H. et al. Predominant autoantibody production by early human B cell precursors. Science 301, 1374–1377 (2003).
Tur, C. et al. CD19-CAR T-cell therapy induces deep tissue depletion of B cells. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 84, 106–114 (2025).
Welte, T. et al. Identification of covariates modulating B-cell repopulation kinetics in subjects receiving rituximab treatment. Arthritis Rheumatol. 75, 2045–2053 (2023).
Colliou, N. et al. Long-term remissions of severe pemphigus after rituximab therapy are associated with prolonged failure of desmoglein B cell response. Sci. Transl. Med. 5, 175ra130 (2013).
Hagen, M. et al. BCMA-targeted T-cell-engager therapy for autoimmune disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 391, 867–869 (2024).
Wang, Q. et al. In vivo CD19 CAR T-cell therapy for refractory systemic lupus erythematosus. N. Engl. J. Med. 393, 1542–1544 (2025).
Schett, G. et al. Updated phase 1 trial data assessing the tolerability, efficacy, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of BMS-986353 (CC-97540), a CD19-directed chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy using a next-generation process for severe refractory systemic lupus erythematosus https://www.congressconnection.com/assets/cdx001/acr-2025/ACR2025_Schett_.pdf (2025).
Bristol Myers Squibb. Bristol Myers Squibb presents encouraging data from phase 1 breakfree-1 study of CD19 NEX-T CAR T cell therapy in three chronic autoimmune diseases at ACR Convergence 2025 https://news.bms.com/news/corporate-financial/2025/Bristol-Myers-Squibb-Presents-Encouraging-Data-from-Phase-1-Breakfree-1-Study-of-CD19-NEX-T-CAR-T-Cell-Therapy-in-Three-Chronic-Autoimmune-Diseases-at-ACR-Convergence-2025/default.aspx (2025).
Aggarwal, R. et al. Promising early outcomes with BMS-986353, a CD19-directed chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy in severe refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathies: safety and efficacy findings from the ongoing phase 1 trial https://www.congressconnection.com/assets/cdx001/acr-2025/ACR2025_Breakfree-1_IIM_LB+poster_.pdf (2025).
Sheikh, S. et al. RESET-SLE: clinical trial evaluating Rese-cel (resecabtagene autoleucel), a fully human, autologous 4-1BB CD19-CAR T cell therapy in non-renal SLE and lupus nephritis. Arthritis Rheumatol. 77, 2468 (2025).
Khanna, D. et al. RESET-SSc: clinical trial evaluating Rese-cel (resecabtagene autoleucel), a fully human, autologous 4-1BB CD19-CAR T cell therapy in systemic sclerosis. Arthritis Rheumatol. 77, 1563 (2025).
Wilfong, E. et al. RESET-Myositis: clinical trial evaluating Rese-cel (resecabtagene autoleucel), a fully human, autologous 4-1BB CD19-CAR T cell therapy in idiopathic inflammatory myopathies. Arthritis Rheumatol. 77, 2669 (2025).
Hagen, M. et al. Safety and efficacy of autologous CD19-CAR T-cell therapy in patients with autoimmune disease—data from the CASTLE phase I/II basket study. Arthritis Rheumatol. 77, 0641 (2025).
Cortés-Hernández, J. et al. Preliminary results of an open-label, multicentre, phase 1/2 study to assess safety, efficacy, and cellular kinetics of YTB323 (rapcabtagene autoleucel), a rapidly manufactured CAR T-cell therapy targeting CD19 on B cells, for severe refractory systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 83, 327–328 (2024).
Zhao, J. et al. Anti-CD19 chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy for refractory systemic lupus erythematosus: an open-label pilot study. Arthritis Rheumatol. 77, 0647 (2025).
Leandro, M. et al. Obecabtagene autoleucel (obe-cel), a CD19-targeting autologous chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy (CAR T) with a fast off-rate binding domain, in patients (pts) with severe, refractory systemic lupus erythematosus (srSLE): preliminary results from the phase I CARLYSLE study. Arthritis Rheumatol. 77, 2458 (2025).
Parker, K. R. et al. Single-cell analyses identify brain mural cells expressing CD19 as potential off-tumor targets for CAR-T immunotherapies. Cell 183, 126–142 (2020).
Van Oekelen, O. et al. Neurocognitive and hypokinetic movement disorder with features of parkinsonism after BCMA-targeting CAR-T cell therapy. Nat. Med. 27, 2099–2103 (2021).
Marella, M. et al. Comprehensive BCMA expression profiling in adult normal human brain suggests a low risk of on-target neurotoxicity in BCMA-targeting multiple myeloma therapy. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 70, 273–287 (2022).